Development Studies

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Cultural aspects of infant undernutrition among the Lujere people of Papua New Guinea : a nursing perspective : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (Social Sciences)
(Massey University, 1983) Gillam, Elizabeth Alice
A field study of five months has been undertaken to determine the causal or predisposing factors related to the prevalence of undernutrition in the Lujere infants and children of Papua New Guinea. Strategies used in the field study include: • visiting eight venues and weighing infants from fifteen villages at regular intervals, variation in the weighing schedule occurred and are discussed • participant observations which incorporated unstructured interviews and ethnographic recordings. • the maintenance of a daily journal, in which all activities and cultural interactions related to the study were noted, has been used as a basis for the descriptive sections of the field study. An anthropological and a nursing perspective has been combined into a "transcultural" nursing approach. The results obtained through these field work strategies show: of 477 infants regularly weighed 27.25% of the infants were seen as well nourished and 72.75% suffered from undernutrition in varying degrees. 19.25% of the undernourished infants were deemed to suffer from severe undernutrition. Causal factors for the high percentage of undernutrition were seen to be related to: • insufficiencies in subsistence patterns mainly due to climatic factors which govern when hunting, gathering, fishing and gardening activities take Place. • the well developed cultural patterns which determined what portion of the available foods were given to infants and children, and when it was culturally acceptable for them to be given • incongruity in relation to health care delivery between the care givers and receivers. The dominant features here were the two different philosophies of causality and treatment of disease. This incongruity generally tended to prolong the duration of undernutrition experienced by Lujere infants and children. These factors need urgent attention and it is recommended that, together with health care givers, the Lujere people need to become aware of and encouraged to use community self care. This self care should amalgamate salient aspects of their own care ideas with prominent aspects of the western health care system.
The valuation of subsistence use of tropical rainforest on the island of Choiseul, Solomon Islands : a comparison between subsistence values and logging royalties : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies, Massey University
(Massey University, 1992) Cassells, Ross Macdonald
This thesis values village subsistence use of tropical rainforest and examines the socio-economic impact of rainforest logging on the island of Choiseul in the Solomon Islands. The destruction of tropical rainforest has become a matter of major international concern. Despite strong opposition to it, tropical rainforest clearance continues at an alarming rate. Economically one of the reasons for this continued destruction is that the immediate financial benefits to be gained from the exploitation of the forest often appear to far outweigh the perhaps greater long term benefits to be gained by a lesser, but more sustainable, form of use. Considerable environmental and social costs are often incurred through forest destruction but these are not always borne by those who have profited from the destruction. Very little research has been undertaken in the Pacific to quantify the impact of tropical rainforest logging on rural village communities. In an attempt to redress this, some four and a half months were spent in the Solomon Islands during 1991 researching and then valuing the subsistence use of tropical rainforest. The field work was undertaken in the villages of Nukiki and Kuku on the island of Choiseul. The villagers were heavily reliant on the subsistence use of the rainforest for their livelihood. Values calculated for these uses were quite substantial at $10,512.15 per annum for the average sized (seven member) household. Using information from Nukiki and applying it to the village of Kuku, where a logging operation had trespassed on village land, it was clear that the villagers had been severely disadvantaged when their land was logged. For example, one area of 41 hectares near Kuku village, was calculated to have yielded 2,018 cubic metres in merchantable logs. The villagers were to be paid $9.00 per cubic metre which would give them a once-only royalty payment of $18,162.18. Subsistence losses from the same area were reported to be four garden sites, six nari and sulu nut trees, 21 betel nut trees, 346 sago palms and approximately 25 percent of the villagers' other useful trees such as those used for housebuilding, canoe making, medicine and food. This loss in subsistence production would be sustained over many years and was calculated to have a present value of $176,613.13. The net loss suffered by the village as a whole was therefore $158,450.95, or a substantial $7,545.28 for each of the 21 households.
Nga Rauru : ka maro te kaki o te Kotuku : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
(Massey University, 1992) Walsh, Michael Wehi Mailetonga
This thesis is concerned with the development of a resource: land, so as to provide an economic base that will sustain social and cultural activities for the iwi of Nga Rauru. Chapter One of the thesis reveals the various Acts and legislations and reasons that made land a source of conflict between Maori and Pakeha during the Nineteenth century. This is the first period of land alienation. Chapter Two highlights the Acts and legislation of the Twentieth century that continued to alienate Maori from their land. Attempts to counter this land alienation are also discussed. In Chapter Three a block of Maori land, originally Crown granted in 1882, is used to show the process of fragmentation and alienation which has produced the situation today: there is still Maori land left in the block, but it is largely leased to local Pakeha farmers. The consequences of land alienation to Maori in general, and where possible Nga Rauru specifically, is discussed in Chapter Four. Economic, cultural, spiritual, social and political factors are viewed in an attempt to gauge Nga Rauru's present 'well-being'. The final chapter calls for the utlisation of Nga Rauru lands to be returned to the iwi. A scenario concentrating on forestry development is used to indicate possible costs and returns to the iwi, in economic and social terms. The chapter concludes that there is a need for Nga Rauru to establish a Development Unit to facilitate desired economic growth for the iwi.
Western involvement in the Pacific Islands region : security concerns and development aid ; a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
(Massey University, 1993) Pattiya, Patranan
Security concerns and development aid are closely-linked issues in the Pacific island region. In the broadest sense, security needs – either economic, political or strategic-explain the involvement of external powers in the Pacific island countries and their aid policies in the region. As security is multi-faceted, there is a difference in the security priorities of Western donors and Pacific island recipients. Different perceptions and concerns led to global-oriented rather than regional-oriented policies for most of the donors, especially at the height of the Cold War. Pacific island countries' concerns have been subordinate to those of the Western donors because these island nations are heavily aid-dependent. Aid-giving is therefore an effective mechanism to help guarantee regional stability and thereby protect the security interests of donors; on a per capita basis, the aid given to the region is very high by Third World standards. The trend of high levels of aid flows in the region has not been significantly affected by the end of the Cold War. Economic vulnerability and intra-regional political problems have been brought to the forefront as potential threats to regional stability, however, in place of wider East-West tensions. Continuing economic dependency means that the Western powers still hold a strong influence in the region.
Participation of women in development, with particular emphasis on people participation in the Fiji pine forestry sector : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of Master of Philosophy ... Development Studies, Massey University
(Massey University, 1993) Fellmann, Felix
The study examines the degree and authenticity of women's and men's participation at four levels of the development arena: The development organisations of Development Assistance Countries (DAC), the New Zealand Development Cooperation Division of the Ministry of External Relations and Trade (MERT), the Fiji Pine Limited and the two participating case study villages of the Fiji Pine project; Vakabull and Tau. The thesis starts with the premise that the degree of participation depends on the question: who controls the central institutions of a given society? For the development organisations of the Development Assistance Countries, strongly positive, significant correlations were seen between the independent variable of the Proportion of Women Parliamentarians and the dependent variables of the UNDP Gender Index, Proportion of GNP spent on Development cooperation and the Proportion of Development Budget spent on Women in Development. These results present strong evidence that a high proportion of women power-holders are influential in improving development solidarity and gender equality at the policy level. Compared to most Development Assistance countries, nominal women's representation in the Ministry of External Relations and Trade of New Zealand's Development Cooperation Division was above average with an increasing number of women in mid-hierarchy positions. Overall, the study of the Development Cooperation Division found a low level of gender awareness and a high variability of conceptual understanding of participation among the survey participants. Within the organisation of Fiji Pine Limited significant inequality was found in regard to women's access to training. Furthermore, as was the case with the Development Cooperation Division, the degree of gender awareness was low and the conceptual understanding of participation highly variable among the survey participants. The village case study found that for women, patriarchy is most strongly pronounced during adolescent, early marriage and the reproduction phase, and that patriarchal control reduced with age. Women were found to participate to a low degree, and in a passive mode in project implementation. While women had access to most of the project's inputs and benefits, they practically never had control over them. Overall, the men and women of Vakabull and Tau villages were participating in a passive mode which was characterised by minimal information flow, little project related knowledge, little project co-responsibility and inadequate conflict solving structures. The study found that women could be more actively involved in the tree nurseries, tree planting and tree weeding in the area of independent contractors. The second avenue for active women's participation was professional women extension workers, forestry managers and project administrators. Overall, the thesis confirmed the view that the degree of participation in development is a function of the importance of the roles played by gender in their society's central institutions.
Foreign direct investment and Thailand's economic growth since the 1970's : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies, Massey University
(Massey University, 1993) Prajuntaboribal, Yutin
Foreign direct investment in Thailand plays a critical role in narrowing the gap between inadequate domestic savings and investment. Domestic production is able to create extremely high economic growth by increasing domestic and foreign demand. The foreign direct investment is determined by various variables. The most significant determinants are market factors such as the gross domestic product. Cost factors, and investment incentives such as the wage gap between Thailand and the investing countries, and natural resource endowments are found to be significant attractions to foreign direct investment from some sources and in some sectors. At the same time, barriers such as the tax burden and the political risk are not sufficiently significant explaining the patterns of foreign direct investment in Thailand. As far as the sources of growth are conccrncd, there are differences in the contribution to economic growth of export growth, domestic demand and investments from different countries. The investments from the United States and European Community countries do not precisely support the export growth, while the investment from Japan and Asian NIC's show stronger signs of contributing to the export growth in industries which have the comparative advantage.
Aspects of the ecology of feral goats (Capra hircus L.) in the Mahoenui giant weta reserve : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University
(Massey University, 1993) Stronge, Dean Charles
A field study of feral goats (Capra hircus) was carried out in the Mahoenui giant weta reserve, southern King Country, New Zealand, from March 1992 to February 1993. The reserve supports the main population of the undescribed Mahoenui giant weta (Deinacrida sp.). The dominant woody browse plant in the reserve, gorse (Ulex europaeus), provides protection, shelter and food for weta. The study aimed to provide information on aspects of the ecology of feral goats to better understand their role in the reserve, and to assess any possible effects on weta survival. The activities, foraging behaviour and broad diet of feral goats within the reserve were studied by means of direct observation and autopsies. Gorse was adequate for goat growth only during late spring/summer, and became a maintenance feed at other times of the year. Goat browsing has probably slowed down the rate of succession from gorse to native forest cover but not prevented it. Successional changes may be detrimental to weta survival. Ranges of male and female herds overlapped at all times of the year and animals from several ranges occupied common bedding sites during the year. Feeding (grazing and browsing) was the dominant activity of adult feral goats in the reserve. Females spent more time feeding than males. Grazing and browsing changed seasonally for both sexes, with grazing generally decreasing from autumn to summer, and browsing increasing from summer to spring. In every season females spent more time grazing than males, but males browsed more than females. Greater use of browse by the bucks may be an affect of the presence of the does. Overall goats appear to have little direct influence on weta. A possible reduction in the rate of successional change is probably the most important effect of goats in the reserve. However, in the absence of direct manipulation of the gorse, goats can not prevent succession from occurring. Monitoring systems for the feral goat population and the vegetation community structure are recommended.
Ownership and employment in the tourist industry in Rarotonga : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
(Massey University, 1993) Bailey, Steven C
The small island states of the Pacific are faced with enormous development problems. Their small size, lack of resources and isolation give them few options to provide the high standard of living that their citizens increasingly demand. Many small island states have embraced tourism as a potential panacea for the development impasse. It appears to offer an ideal way for a country with few resources to generate jobs and foreign exchange. Yet the optimistic expectations are rarely realized. Developing nations have found the benefits of their tourist industries accruing largely to metropolitan countries. The very nature of the global tourist industry seems to require foreign ownership and management of the industry, resulting in repatriation of profits and leakages of foreign exchange. There are ways that a developing country can avoid this fate. The key is good management and planning, and to be prepared to eschew mass tourism in favour of an industry built around smaller, locally owned facilities. A small scale industry reduces the need for foreign investment, and foreign employment. While in absolute terms it may not generate as many tourist dollars as mass tourism, it allows the industry to be more integrated into the local economy and society. Increased linkages with the rest of the economy reduce the need for imports and reduce leakages of foreign exchange. The Rarotongan tourist industry is substantially owned and run by foreigners. Good management and planning by the Cook Islands Government can rectify this situation. Increased local management requires better education and training for local people. It requires that Government and tourism operations improve the image of the industry as an employer. Greater attention must be given to the collection of labour market data, to enforcing policies on localization and to encouraging Cook Islanders to return to their country. To increase Cook Islands' ownership of the industry government must make finance, advice, and well constructed and publicised incentives available to local entrepreneurs. Development strategies should encourage provision of a range of tourist facilities, including opportunities for development of budget accommodation, so that local entrepreneurs can invest in the industry.
Social forestry for economic and ecological sustainability : a thesis submitted to Massey University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies, Massey University
(Massey University, 1993) Sobrevinas, Josimar B
This study looked into the prospects of state and other agency-sponsored social forestry project in addressing poverty and abating environmental degradation in the uplands. Forest destruction is rooted both on poverty condition of the swiddeners and their traditional farming practices. The social forestry's participatory component, scientific cropping modules and incentive schemes are viewed as effective measures to these problems. The social forestry project which is jointly implemented by the New Zealand government and the Philippine National Oil Company (PNOC) in the three geothermal reservations managed by PNOC was chosen as the study areas due to the presence of the above-mentioned social forestry components in the project. The research findings supported the strength of the monetary incentive scheme in eliciting farmers' participation in development projects which subsequently controlled their destructive kaingin-making practices. This, however, must be coupled with extensive social. economic and environmental training of the kaingineros. The attractiveness of the project scheme to both project and non-project beneficiaries was also established. This study also demonstrates some successes of participation in terms of the development of the farmers' potentials and capabilities in self-management and realization of individual rights. The financial analysis in the study determined the economy of scale of the combination of cropping modules while the economic analysis has established the project's beneficial effects on the environment. It justifies financial allocation to projects of this nature. The natural and social problems in the implementation of the social forestry project could be addressed locally through the joint effort of project staff and the farmers-participants. The donor and proponent agencies, on the other hand, showed their sincere intention to minimize the occurrence of administrative problems.
The development of Maori art in education : case study of a New Zealand secondary school : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
(Massey University, 1994) Paama-Pengelly, Julie
Various theoretical approaches have accompanied the history of art development, with certain cultural products selected to represent 'art' most popularly defined in the Classical and Romantic periods of European art production. The rise of mass culture, and the changing relations of production, in the new industrial world have served to highlight the unequal access to power, status and rewards accorded to cultural products deemed 'art' as opposed to 'culture' under these definitions. The ideologies of what constitutes art seem to disadvantage certain ethnic groups such as the Maori. This highlights fundamental conflicts between the definition of 'art' according to an imported European culture and an indigenous Maori culture. The case of 'Te Maori' exhibition 1984 - 1985 raises the issue as to whether the selection of cultural products in New Zealand according to a European art aesthetic has been congenial to the development of Maori art. Alternatively, has it merely served as 'potent defence' of the current social structure of art. Cultural definitions have increasingly become an issue in education at a broader level, as educational attainment of secondary school leavers has continued to be disproportionately lower for Maori than Pakeha as our nation fails to fulfil its development aims to promote equity for all social groups in New Zealand. Particular theories on the cultural 'mismatch' between Maori culture and the dominant 'habitus' of the secondary school have had some support from research into Maori career expectations, and point to the education system perpetuating social inequalities rather than addressing them. The selection of art as a worthy cultural product, as formalised in secondary school art studies, may similarly act to support the subversion of Maori art forms in their function as communicator, transmitter and recorder of Maori identity and culture. Art is defined in secondary schools according to the prevailing Pakeha dominant ideology. Firstly the recognition of traditional Maori art is considered in terms of correct rendering of basic elements, and for a range of traditional Maori art. The importance of traditional Maori art contexts is discussed in light of the formal elements of Maori art and the wholeness of Maori culture and the school art syllabus is examined for its attention to these factors. Pupil knowledge and attitudes are surveyed in art classes of a particular East Coast secondary school and the results are compared according to ethnic groupings and gender differences, with a small group of Maori students from another East Coast school who have not had formal secondary school art education. Maori art has a history and tradition that has evolved to encompass and embrace new elements, while still holding true to many traditional cultural contexts. It demonstrates continued growth and development in new contexts. Particular contexts are examined; art production and art significance inside the traditional meeting house. Methods and concepts are explored in the test schools to hypothesise on the level and requirements of contextualisation of Maori art in secondary schools. The contemporary presence of Maori art, the viability and nature of this presence, is then examined in the light of judgements made by secondary school students towards certain contemporary Maori art works by Maori and non-Maori artists. This serves to highlight the criteria students are using to judge Maori art as 'Maori' and whether Maori art forms are being accorded a development and continuity - an inherent value - of their own. Explanation of the tendency for education to ignore the needs of Maori and society towards Maori art cultural products is explored in the light of theories of the reproductive nature of education, and the findings in this particular research.
New Zealand's energy policy from the world system perspective : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
(Massey University, 1994) Debahasatin, Jutha
The World-System Theory of Immanuel Wallerstein is a grand-scale theory that is useful as a framework to understand how New Zealand's path of development has been affected by the country's energy policy. The theory is appropriate in application to energy issues because its macro-level of analysis puts emphasis on both exogenous and endogenous factors. Its special emphasis on historical background and context also adds to an understanding of the New Zealand position. The World-System perspective offers three major concepts directly applicable to the case of New Zealand energy policy, namely, the interplay between politics and economics with a particular interest in the role of multinational corporations (MNCs) and the state, the notion of semiperiphery, and the cyclical nature of the world economy. During the period of the 1970s economic downturn marked by two oil crises, New Zealand as well as most other countries and the MNCs suffered a severe setback. However, while most core states, as well as some successful non-core states and the oil majors, could react appropriately to the crises and retain their potential for growth, the semiperipheral New Zealand could not. The country possessed few options because of her intermediate level of industrialisation and less competent state apparatus compared to the MNCs involved. Lacking the intention to promote local industrial capitalists, the New Zealand state chose wrong strategies, first Think Big and then disinvestment, which together have undermined the bargaining position of local entrepreneurs, over-committed the national hydrocarbon resource and disproportionately promoted the interest of the foreign oil corporations. The overall outcome of the energy policy is therefore detrimental to the country's development.
The participation of women in the Solomon Islands education system : a study with particular reference to Solomon Island women who held New Zealand government tertiary scholarships between 1973 and 1990 : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Development Studies at Massey University
(Massey University, 1994) Quinn, Marion
This is a study on the participation of women in the Solomon Islands education system, focussing in particular on the experiences of Solomon Islands women who held New Zealand Government tertiary scholarships between 1973 and 1990. Despite increasing international recognition of the importance of education for girls and women in addressing critical national economic and social goals, gender remains the single most significant determinant of access to schooling in most developing countries. While there is a growing body of literature on factors affecting the participation of girls and women in education in developing countries, little has been written on the subject in relation to the South Pacific and nothing of substance in relation to Solomon Islands. More generally, Altbach (1985) noted the lack of research on the experience of women as overseas students and the outcomes of tertiary education for women in developing countries. The findings of this study confirm research carried out elsewhere that the socio-economic status of parents has greater influence on the schooling of girls than of boys. For the earliest women tertiary students, the encouragement of educated fathers was of particular significance in breaking down traditional barriers to girls' participation in education. Girls and women from matrilineal societies were, in general, given greater encouragement to enter and to remain longer in school. In undertaking tertiary study overseas and returning to positions of responsibility in both the public and private sectors, the women in this study were in many ways 'trailblazers' for the women who followed behind them. Their position was not an easy one, subject often to personal misunderstanding and criticism as they sought a new role and a new status for women in Solomon Islands society. Yet this was not an elite, Westernised group, divorced from their own society. Those interviewed were characterised by a strong commitment to assisting other Solomon Islands women and to contributing effectively to the development of their society. The study concludes that the interests of development have been well served by the investment in their education.
Subsistence food production and marketing in Papua New Guinea : a research paper presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
(Massey University, 1994) Peng, Peter Benjamen
Agriculture is the main component of the economic sector of the Less Developed Countries (LDC's) of Asia, Africa and Latin America. In most of these countries, which includes Papua New Guinea (PNG), subsistence agriculture dominates despite the tremendous advances in agricultural technology elsewhere, especially in Developed Countries, in the course of the twentieth century. The characteristic feature of these subsistence farms is low productivity which means small, if any, production surplus over consumption, which results in very little trade between the agriculture sector and other sectors of the country. In LDC's, this has often led to declining food production and increased dependence on imported food as the bulk of domestic food supply is produced by the subsistence sector. In PNG, very similar trends are noted. This paper examines some issues affecting smallholder agriculture and implications for increasing agricultural productivity in PNG. Specifically, the research problem and the focus of this study is firstly, how to increase subsistence food production and secondly, how to effectively move the rural surplus to urban consumers where it is required. To increase productivity, LDC's are faced with two choices; extend land area under cultivation if land is available or improve agricultural technology if land is scarce. While PNG is relatively well endowed with land (more than four times the average for developing countries) , much of the land is too mountainous to convert to arable land, with only less than 0.3 per cent of the land used for annual crops and grazing. The choice of strategy thus is determined by land. This paper shows that the PNG government has under-invested in agriculture, particularly subsistence agriculture. Further investment in research and technology is required, focusing especially on their farming systems. Traditional farmers are not traditionalist by choice. Agricultural techniques have been developed over centuries, through years of accumulated experience of generations of farmers. Extensive literature in agriculture economics show that traditional farmers cannot normally adopt technological innovations unless the circumstances in which they operate are first changed. The important role of marketing in economic development is also underplayed. It is a common fallacy to assume that markets when left to their own devices can lead to increased productivity and efficiency within the distribution system. Government intervention is also necessary in marketing to achieve social goals of self sufficiency in food production. This study attempts to demonstrate that given the right incentives, mostly institutional and technological, subsistence food production can be increased in PNG.
Marxist development theory and state formation : a theoretical and empirical assessment : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
(Massey University, 1995) Wright, Huntley Lloyd Rayne
First and foremost, it is argued that contrary to traditional interpretations of Marx's work, his sociology does not provide a recipe for advancing a putative set of universal categories. The categories of the forces and social relations of production and the ideal superstructures are transhistorical categories. Taken alone, these categories are independent of any particular society and as such, have almost no explanatory value. This means, that to equate the productive forces with 'things', the social relations with economic relations and the superstructure with a 'relatively autonomous' level, irrespective of their particular mode of production, is at the same time to fetishize them. In terms of state formation, Marxism's failure to grasp this point reflects an inability to develop a mode of abstraction which is able to avoid arriving at a generic, dualistic notion of the state 'in general'. The result is a dehistorizing one: since conventional historical materialism takes the appearance of an isolated 'economic' sphere and an isolated 'political' sphere as a characteristic common to all human productive forms, this specifically capitalist form of appearance is transposed from a determinant historical form to a property political forms 'possess' transhistorically. The task which Marx set himself was to explain what definite form of labour organizes surplus value, capital, private property and the state as its outcome? In terms of the state, Marx was never to answering this question in anything like the detail in which he traced the development of surplus value and capital. Nonetheless, what we have in Marx's writing is a unity between object and method. Thus, while it is true that comparatively little attention is paid to bourgeois society as an effective phenomenal form, the analytic foundations for such a critique is clearly articulated. Thus, while part one of the present thesis is concerned with the impasse in Marxist development theory, parts two and three focus on Marx's theories of circulation, the labour theory of value and the law of equivalence in exchange. It is argued that the foregoing moments are organically linked via the category of abstract labour. However, because Marxists' have failed to grasp the originality of this category, they have also failed to identify the object of Marx's work. Furthermore, it is only through the category of abstract labour that we are able to develop a theory of state formation which can encompass the differences presented by the modern state in relation to all antecedent forms, and which does not, therefore, arrive at a generic notion of the state 'in general' (Colletti, 1972:8). This thesis is thus a study of Marx's ideas. It draws on a variety of texts, ranging from such early works as 'The Holy Family' (1844) through to the 'Marginal Notes of Adolf Wagner' (1880). How I interpret and link these ideas is by no means original, but is greatly influenced by the writings of Derek Sayer, Lucio Colletti, Ben Fine and Henry Bernstein.
Homestead forestry and rural development : a socio-empirical study of Bangladesh : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, New Zealand
(Massey University, 1995) Hossain, Khondoker Mokaddem
This thesis is concerned with the role of homestead forests in the development of poor, labour surplus economies. The term 'homestead forest' refers to the collection of vegetation - trees, plants, herbs, creepers and others - which almost all rural households in Bangladesh grow, for their own use as well as for sale, using the land in and around their homesteads and dwellings. The term 'development' encompasses economic, social, cultural and ecological aspects of countries. The thesis therefore examines the role of homestead forests in this wider context. It starts by reviewing the existing theoretical literature on development drawing on the works of sociologists, social anthropologists, development economists, geographers and others. It argues that many of the theories do not fit the particular conditions of the very poor agriculture-dependent economies such as Bangladesh. This study therefore advances the hypotheses that of 'non-conventional' approaches involving the development of the resources of homestead forests in the rural areas would go a long way towards assisting the poor, landless masses of Bangladesh. An extensive survey of the many and varied uses of homestead forests is undertaken to support these hypotheses on the basis of direct observation and experience. To give further content to the hypotheses, village surveys were undertaken in carefully selected areas of Bangladesh. With the help of scientifically formulated questionnaires the situation of the rural people of the selected villages was examined. This helped to identify the many causes of poverty and helplessness among the rural poor. The methods of survival were also focused on in these surveys of the rural people. It became clear that homestead forests play a major role in the lives and livelihoods of the rural people. The question why the large scale forestry development programmes did not help the rural poor also figured in this investigation. It was found that the large scale commercial types of forests deny access to the majority of the rural people, while homestead forests, being directly owned and controlled by the people, provide them with much needed support. It is true that such support, however valuable, is still inadequate. It is also unevenly distributed among the rural people. The survey therefore looked at the distributional aspects of homestead forestry resources within the survey villages. The findings confirm the need to strengthen this valuable resource base in rural Bangladesh if widespread poverty, and its inevitable concomitant, social and political unrest and instability are to be attacked. The study ends with a number of recommendations to make the changes necessary for more efficient utilization of the homestead forestry resources for the benefit directly of the poor and, indirectly, the rest of society as well.
The effectiveness of aid delivery a comparative study : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in development studies at Massey University
(Massey University, 1995) Thorpe, Tim
This study sets up a process for the systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of aid agencies in aid delivery through evaluating the projects and programmes that they are implementing. It evaluates and compares five different aid agencies comprising of a bilateral aid donor, non-government organisation, community based organisation, development bank and multilateral aid donor. The common ground for comparison is that these agencies have all been providing assistance to, or working in, the forestry sector in the Solomon Islands over a relatively long period. The study found that it is possible to apply a systematic comparative evaluation process to aid agencies, and the projects and programmes that they were implementing, despite seemingly large differences in aid philosophy and aid management among them. By applying systematic comparative evaluations such as the one set up in this study it is possible to learn from all agencies how to enhance the effectiveness of aid delivery for the ultimate benefit of donor and recipient alike. The study found that none of the agencies reviewed in the study were necessarily more effective than any other agency in aid delivery. There was likewise no evidence that any one theoretical position on development, or any particular approach to aid delivery was necessarily any more effective when it came to implementing aid projects or programmes. There are too many variables affecting the implementation of projects and programmes for any one approach to aid delivery or theoretical position to be the most effective in all cases.
Self reliance and the YMCA's of Fiji and Western Samoa : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Masters of Philosophy degree in Development Studies
(Massey University, 1995) Oliver, Dennis
The role of Non-Government Organisations (NGO's) in the process of development in Third World countries has become a focus of attention over the last decade. Their work is seen as an important contribution in the development of the human resource. Most NGO's have become users of overseas aid. In recent years they have been challenged by the overseas funding agencies to become financially self-reliant. This study enquires about the nature of the meaning of the concept of self-reliance, whether it is a universally held value or whether it is a logical by-product of the world capitalist system. The YMCA's of Fiji and Western Samoa are used as case studies along with some other NGO's in Fiji and Western Samoa. The study concludes that the YMCA of Western Samoa is not likely to become more than fifty percent financially self-reliant because of a severely limited resource base, especially the absence of a sizable middle class. It is also immersed in a national climate of dependency from the family, community and government level. The YMCA of Fiji is making progress and will in all likelihood achieve operational financial self-reliance but in setting its goals on self-reliance it has been captured by the middle class and has reduced its programme with the poor and the rural people.
Bridge building and barrier breaking between ecosocialism and deep ecology : a metatheoretical perspective : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
(Massey University, 1995) Marshall, Alan
The objective of this thesis is to explore the relationships and the theoretical bounds of compatibility between Ecosocialism and Deep Ecology. The ultimate aim of such an exploration is that a suitable synthesis of Ecosocialist and Deep Ecological thought is achieved. Such a synthesis may elude this author, but hopefully some progress towards building bridges and breaking down barriers between the two streams of environmentalism can be made. This 'syn-thesis' concentrates on examining the metatheoretical perspectives of Ecosocialism and Deep Ecology for it is from such an examination that the major incongruities between them can be identified. The metatheories examined include Deep Ecology's unitarianism, Self-realizationism and non-anthropocentrism, and Ecosocialism's communitarianism, sociality and anthropocentrism. There are other theoretical barriers between them but the ones listed above may be interpreted as encompassing those islands of thought, between which bridges can be built. As an aid to the reader, some definition of Ecosocialism and Deep Ecology may be useful: Ecosocialism is a stream of environmentalism that draws on the theoretical background of socialist principles and Marxism to identify environmental problems and effect solutions. Although the productivist outlook of most modern socialisms has been theoretically ejected from Ecosocialism, its continued anthropocentrism keeps it from attaining 'radical' environmentalism status. Deep Ecology is a non-anthropocentric stream of environmentalism that relies on the personal experiences of human individuals with nature to effect environmental attitudes within society. Deep Ecology's 'deepness' has variously been attributed to its deeper respect for nature, its deeper perspective of egalitarianism, its deeper analysis into environmental problems and its deeper affiliation with things spiritual.
A quiet revolution : strategies for the empowerment and development of rural women in the Solomon Islands : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy [in Development Studies] at Massey University
(Massey University, 1995) Scheyvens, Regina
The purpose of this thesis is to locate effective strategies to promote women's development in Third World countries. It is argued that many past development efforts aimed at women have failed to significantly improve their lives because while they may have alleviated women's burdens, they have not attempted to challenge the existing structures in society which have accorded women secondary status. Unequal power relations, rather than a lack of resources, explain why women have not benefited from development to the same extent as men thus women need greater access to power. An approach which focuses on empowering women to help them to challenge the status quo was, therefore, established as providing a good model for development agencies to follow. Fieldwork in the Solomon Islands revealed that many development agencies and planners adopted a conservative, home economics approach to women's development which focused largely on women's roles as wives and mothers. Many other concerns facing women, including their rights to land, access to safe contraception and literacy were largely ignored. It became apparent that many development agencies had a poor conception of gender needs and interests and how they could be addressed largely because they had failed to consult their supposed beneficiaries. Analysis confirmed that there was a strong relationship between the amount of input rural women had into a development initiative and the likelihood that they would be empowered by it. Despite the narrow approach adopted by many agencies attempting to assist rural women, however, a movement for change did emerge. Women's organisations played a key role in this movement, providing women with a space in which to define and pursue their future priorities, and building collective solidarity so that women would have the confidence to confront forces which were obstructing their progress. These groups, and agencies supporting their work, were not afraid to address the causes of women's subordination although subtle strategies, rather than outright confrontation, proved to be most effective in catalysing changes in women's lives.
The lived experience of interaction with authority by members of a fringe group (gang) in New Zealand society : an interpretive descriptive analysis : a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
(Massey University, 1995) Manley, Susan Ellen
This descriptive interpretive study examines the lived experience of interaction with authority by a fringe group (gangs) in New Zealand society. Using the qualitative methodology of Heideggerian Hermeneutic Analysis, the texts from five interviews are analyzed, interpreted and presented. The participants are asked to tell us what has been significant for them as they experience living in the world. Analysis reveals interpretive phenomenological meanings of motivations, actions, strategies and understandings of their responses to interaction with authority. Extensive findings emerge from their stories in the form of five common themes, two relational themes and a constitutive pattern. The five themes include various forms of dominance, violence, betrayal, submission and manifestation of authority. The two relational themes are epitomized by the way in which members of this group are both 'standing in the shadow' and 'standing in the light' of our New Zealand society when they interact with authority. The constitutive pattern found in their stories reveals the need for 'Creating Places' that keep open a future of possibilities for gangs in our society. The experience of gang interaction with authority is embedded in networks of relationships based in the Gang, the family, the community and the culture of our society and uncovers not only how gangs interact with authority, but how authority interacts with gangs. Their stories reveal everyday events that are recognizable, intelligible and tell us not only how gangs organize their everyday world but what it means for them to profoundly be in the world. Understanding this has the effect of creating a place for gangs that is open to possibilities not only for themselves but for society in general.

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