Browsing by Author "Shipman A"

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    A quantitative comparison of virtual and physical experimental paradigms for the investigation of pedestrian responses in hostile emergencies.
    (Springer Nature, 2024-03-22) Shipman A; Majumdar A; Feng Z; Lovreglio R
    Modern experiments investigating human behaviour in emergencies are often implemented in virtual reality (VR), due to the increased experimental control and improved ethical viability over physical reality (PR). However, there remain questions regarding the validity of the results obtained from these environments, and no full validation of VR experiments has yet appeared. This study compares the results of two sets of experiments (in VR and PR paradigms) investigating behavioural responses to knife-based hostile aggressors. This study quantitatively analyses these results to ascertain whether the different paradigms generate different responses, thereby assessing the use of virtual reality as a data generating paradigm for emergencies. The results show that participants reported almost identical psychological responses. This study goes on to identify minimal differences in movement responses across a range of predictors, noting a difference in responses between genders. As a result, this study concludes that VR can produce similarly valid data as physical experiments when investigating human behaviour in hostile emergencies, and that it is therefore possible to conduct realistic experimentation through VR environments while retaining confidence in the resulting data. This has major implications for the future of this type of research, and furthermore suggests that VR experimentation should be performed for both existing and new critical infrastructure to understand human responses in hostile scenarios.
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    Movement behaviour of pedestrians in knife-based terrorist attacks: An experimental approach
    (Elsevier B.V, 2024-07-26) Shipman A; Majumdar A; Boyce N; Lovreglio R
    Terrorist attacks have become both more frequent and deadlier in recent decades. Knife attacks by terrorists in particular are both high impact and relatively frequent. Understanding how individuals move when confronted by an attacker can save lives by informing the planning of transportation hubs, entertainment venues and other spaces where large numbers of people congregate. Using pedestrian dynamics to predict responses to such attacks has the potential to further improve the survival of those involved by providing insights to emergency service responders when a terrorist situation has occurred in a crowded venue. However, given the lack of appropriate data, it is currently impossible to accurately predict pedestrian movement responses to terrorist attacks. This paper describes a practical study that developed a methodology and implemented a set of experiments examining responses to knife-based attacks by an unexpected and hostile individual. The experiments used financial incentives and an ‘aggressor’ to recreate a knife-based terrorist attack in an ethically viable setting. The participants of this study (n = 80) were tracked using ultra wide-band sensors to provide temporal and spatial positional data in relation to the attacker and to each other. Participants subsequently completed a questionnaire to report their psychological response during the experiment, thus allowing psychological perception and movement responses to be compared. The results show that participants were stressed and reported fear during the experiment, indicating that the experimental approach is a potentially valid proxy for a real-life attack. The analysis highlights that participants’ decisions to stay or run away were strongly influenced by the actions of other nearby participants, while participants’ continuous movement response (movement speed) was highly dependent on relative position to the aggressor. Participant demographics were a factor with female participants less likely to move and slower moving, while older participants were also slower moving. From these results we have been able to construct a model of how pedestrians may react when faced with a sudden attack. We discuss our findings and their potential to contribute to emergency planning and response, finally we comment on opportunities for further study.
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    Prototyping and testing a virtual reality counterterrorism serious game for active shooting
    (Elsevier B.V., 2022-09-28) Lovreglio R; Daphney-Chloe N; Rahouti A; Paes D; Feng Z; Shipman A
    An active shooting emergency requires an effective strategy to increase the chances of survival of the attacked population. Educational environments are one of the most common locations of such events. To reduce the impact of these disasters, several emergency plans have been developed and put in place. Traditionally, these emergency plans are taught to occupants using non-interactive videos, drills, etc. However, these conventional methods present many limitations regarding trainees' knowledge acquisition, engagement and self-efficacy. To overcome them, this paper presents the prototype of an immersive Virtual Reality (VR) Serious Game (SG) for counterterrorism training. A user-centred evaluation of the proposed training SG was conducted with 32 participants. The experiment aimed to investigate the impact of the proposed tool on participants' knowledge regarding the safest actions to take in case of an active shooter attack. Participants' intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy levels were also assessed before and after the VR-based training. Findings indicate that participants’ knowledge, intrinsic motivation, and self-efficacy significantly increased immediately after the training.